Идеи пангло

Принципы пангло

Пангло — это простой язык. У каждого есть равные шансы выучить пангло и хорошо на нем говорить. Предполагается, что это великий уравнитель — способ общения, который все могут использовать на одном уровне.

Пангло — это абсолютно глобальный язык. Он заимствует слова из всех регионов и всех культур мира. Это мировой язык, который представляет весь мир!

Пангло — это практичный язык. Он использует элементы, уже ставшие международными, включая базовый латинский алфавит, базовые слова из английского языка и международные слова из греческого, латинского, санскрита, китайского и арабского языков, среди прочих. Таким образом, пангло можно использовать в реальном международном общении с самого начала.

Пангло — простой язык. В международных ситуациях лучше всего использовать простые слова, короткие предложения и незамысловатый язык, поскольку они гораздо эффективнее, чем специализированные слова, длинные предложения и сложный язык. Так что давайте будем говорить проще!

Panglo кажется реальным. Это как потерянный родственник английского языка, который, кажется, похож на английский, но в то же время является совершенно отдельным видом. В этом отношении он похож на настоящих родственников английского языка, (таких как немецкий, голландский, африкаанс и скандинавские языки) и на потомков английского языка, (таких как ямайская, сингапурская и нигерийская версии английского).

Глобально универсальный

Действительно ли он глобален?

Panglo действительно глобален! Первое, что вы, вероятно, заметите в Panglo, это то, что он выглядит и звучит примерно как английский, но на самом деле английские слова — это лишь верхушка айсберга. Под поверхностью скрывается гораздо больше! Panglo гораздо разнообразнее, чем может показаться на первый взгляд.

Чем больше изучаешь Пангло, тем более космополитичным он кажется.

Почему не все языки включены?

На рисунке ниже показано кумулятивное распределение 50 наиболее распространенных родных языков. Рисунок показывает, что:

25 процентов населения мира говорит на трех наиболее распространенных языках
50 процентов населения мира говорит на тринадцати наиболее распространенных языках
75 процентов населения мира говорит на пятидесяти наиболее распространенных языках

Остальные языки – а их более 6000! – остаются вне этой картины. Кривая, крутая в начале, практически превращается в плоскую линию, приближаясь к последнему языку, на котором говорит лишь небольшое количество людей.

Рисунок показывает, что после определенного момента добавление еще одного языка не сделает межъязыковое взаимодействие значительно более интернациональным. Например, если бы 50 наиболее распространенных языков уже были включены, добавление 51-го языка не сильно изменило бы ситуацию, поскольку увеличило бы охват с 75,07% до 75,43%.

Также можно поставить под сомнение практическую целесообразность включения 51 языка вместо 50. Увеличение охвата будет незначительным, всего 0,36%, и это не поможет оставшимся 24,24% населения мира, говорящим на других, менее распространенных языках!

Рисунок. Процентное соотношение населения мира по языкам в зависимости от числа носителей языка.

Словарный запас панглоязычного языка основан на наиболее распространенных языках. Он охватывает все континенты и все основные современные культуры мира. Кроме того, в нем много общих международных слов с менее распространенными языками. Поэтому слова, похожие на пангло-язычные, можно найти и в более мелких языках.

Полезно в реальной жизни

Panglo — это язык, который должен быть полезен в реальной жизни. Что это значит? Это значит, что вы можете сразу же начать говорить на нём в отелях, магазинах, такси, аэропортах, на вокзалах и т. д. Это значит, что вы можете понимать дорожные знаки и вывески отелей, баров и ресторанов. Это значит, что вы можете объясниться.

Пангло — это открытый язык. В пангло разрешено использовать слова из других языков. Используйте всё необходимое, чтобы вас поняли! Например, в Китае вы можете сказать mi van go do "fan dien", хотя restoran — это обычное слово для обозначения ресторана в пангло. Ведь важнее попасть в ресторан, чем идеально говорить на пангло, не так ли?

Пангло — это не тайный язык для небольшого клуба или секты. На практике важнее уметь общаться со всеми, чем теоретически защищать «чистоту нашего языка».

Как должен звучать язык пангло?

Язык пангло используется в «континентально-европейском» произношении. Это означает, что германская часть пангло звучит скорее как немецкий, голландский и скандинавские языки, а романская — как испанский, португальский, итальянский и французский.

Континентальное произношение, как правило, является исходным способом произношения слов. Именно поэтому орфография в пангло гораздо более фонетическая, чем в английском!

Например, слова nation и native связаны между собой. Давайте сравним, как они пишутся и произносятся в разных языках.

Язык
английский	nation	/neɪʃən/	native	/neɪtiv/
немецкий	Nation	/natsio:n/	native	/nativə/
голландский	natie	/na:tsi/	–	–
русский	нация	/natsiya/	–	–
французский	nation	/nasyõ/	natif	/natif/
испанский	nación	/nasyon/	nativo	/natiβo/
португальский	nação	/nasãũ/	nativo	/natʃivu/
пангло	nation	/nation/	native	/nativə/

В данном случае Panglo возвращает написание и произношение к своим истокам.

Минимализм?

Одна из целей пангло-языка — запоминание меньшего количества слов, чем в английском и других естественных языках, но это не означает абсолютного минимализма. Поэтому могут встречаться близкие синонимы, такие как frende и doste, оба означающие «друг».

The 10 Rules of Panglo

Panglo is so simple that its basic grammar can be described in only ten rules, all of which can fit on a sheet of paper. There are no exceptions.

(1) World words

Panglo is an evenly global language. International words are borrowed from all parts of the world to Panglo. They are adapted to the pronunciation and orthography of Panglo. One basic word is admitted and additional words are built from it according to rule 10.

(2) Spelling and pronunciation

Spelling is simple and regular. Every word is pronounced exactly as it is written. Almost every letter and letter-combination indicates always the same sound.

(3) Regular stress accent

Root words are stressed on the syllable that is before the last consonant of the word, f.ex. háu ('nice'), dúnia ('world'), básh ('language'), amén ('amen'). Derived words and compound words are stressed according to their components so that the main component carries the primary stress and other components may carry secondary stress, f.ex. trabásh ('translate'), dúnialìsme ('globalism'), bàsh skóla ('language school'). Primary accent is indicated here by an acute accent (á) and secondary accent by a grave accent (à).

(4) Pronouns

The personal pronouns are:
mi 'I', tu 'you' (singular), hi 'he, she, it', vi 'we', yu 'you' (plural), de 'they'.

The possessive pronouns are:
mi's 'my', tu's 'your', hi's 'his or her', vi's 'our', yu's 'your', de's 'their'.

The interrogative pronouns are: vat 'what', hu 'who', hu's 'whose'.

(5) Nouns

Nouns have only one form, always the same. Their form is not affected by number, gender or case. Number is indicated by number and quantity words. Their role is indicated by word order or by a preposition.

(6) Numerals

The cardinal numbers are:
0 siro, 1 un, 2 du, 3 tri, 4 for, 5 faif, 6 sixe, 7 seven, 8 eit, 9 nain, 10 ten.
Greater than ten: 11 ten un, 12 ten du, 13 ten tri, etc.
Tens: 20 du ten, 30 tri ten, 40 for ten, etc.
Hundreds: 100 un hunde, 200 du hunde, 300 tri hunde, etc.
Thousands: 1000 un tauzen, 2000 du tauzen, 3000 tri tauzen, etc.

When a number is put after the noun, it becomes the corresponding ordinal number:
parte un – part one, the first part
parte du – part two, the second part
parte tri – part three, the third part

(7) Modifiers

The adjective and the adverb have the same form. The adjective modifier is before the noun that it modifies, and the adverb modifier is before the verb that it modifies.

un rapid logu – A fast speech.
tu rapid logu. – You speak fast.

(8) Verbs

The verb does not change in person, number and tense. Auxiliary verbs indicate time.

bi indicates an ongoing event.
hav indicates a completed event, which has an effect on the present situation.
did indicates a past event.
vil indicates a future event.

(9) Word order

The word order is subject–verb–object. The same order is used in declarations and questions.

A passive sentence is created with the help of the passive auxiliary verb ben. A similar effect can also be reached with the impersonal pronoun von.

Panglo ben logu. – Panglo is spoken.
von logu Panglo. – One speaks Panglo.

In the pivot structure, the object of the transitive verb functions as the subject of the following verb.
mi ples tu logu Panglo. – I ask you to speak Panglo.

Pronouns can be left out when they are obvious and redundant.
mi ples tu logu Panglo. → ples logu Panglo.
– Please speak Panglo.

(10) Word building

In Panglo, words change only when their actual meaning changes. Words don't ever change only to serve in a different grammatical role. Compound words are made by combining the elements that form them. The main word stands at the end.

poste ('mail') + kase ('box') = poste kase ('mailbox')

Spelling and pronunciation

Panglo is phonetic in two directions:

When you read a word, you can always pronounce it.
When you hear a word, you can almost always write it. (Foreign names can be an exception.)

Once you have learned the few rules and the way letters are pronounced, you can read Panglo aloud and be understood.

Basic Latin Alphabet

Panglo is written in the basic Latin alphabet – the same as English! It doesn't have any of the accented letters, which are different from language to language. So it can be typed, printed and used with computers and smart devices in most countries without any difficulty.

A B C Ch D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S Sh T U V W X Y Z

A specialty of the Panglo writing system is that every consonant letter by itself includes a short mid central vowel sound unless otherwise specified. (In this regard Panglo's writing system works like those of India.) This short vowel sound is called schwa, and it is the most basic vowel sound that can be created without much effort. It is like the a in English career /kərir/ or sofa /soufə/. A consonant's schwa can also be silent and it can be replaced by any written vowel. Therefore for example did can be pronounced /did/ or /didə/ but didi is always pronounced /didi/.

Note on phonetic notation

In this page, we use the symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to show pronunciation in writing. We use square brackets and slashes to show that we're talking about a sound and not a letter.

Physical speech sounds are written between square brackets, for example [r] and [ɹ] indicate two different r-sounds, the trill and the glide. However, [r] and [ɹ] are not distinguished in Panglo, but they are perceived as one sound. These mental sounds or phonemes can cover several physical sounds and are written between slashes. So, speakers of Panglo perceive mentally always one sound, /r/, regardless of which physical sound, [r] or [ɹ], is actually heard. It is said that Panglo has the phoneme /r/, which has alternative physical pronunciations [r] and [ɹ]. This can be annotated /r/ = [r] ~ [ɹ].

Sounds

Panglo has its own sound system and its own spelling system that are mostly similar to those of the languages of continental Europe and Latin America.

The complete speech sound inventory of Panglo is presented in the table below.

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stops	b p	t d	ch j	k g
Fricatives	f	s z	sh		h
Nasals	m	n		ng
Lateral		l
Trill		r
Semivowels	v		y
---------------	-------	-------	-------	-------	-------
High vowels	u		i
Mid vowels	o	ə	e
Low vowels		a
	Back	Central	Front

Vowels

Panglo has six oral vowels. They are represented by the five vowel letters A, E, I, O and U in the writing system, where E represents both /e/ and /ə/.

Panglo	IPA	Pronunciation advise
A	/a/	As in father.
E	/e/	As in bet when it is in accented syllable.
E	/ə/	As in happen when it is in unaccented syllables.
I	/i/	As in machine.
O	/o/	As in or.
U	/u/	As in rule.

There are also several common vowel sequences – au, ou, ai, ei, oi – which are pronounced as the consecutive vowels with or without a hiatus in between.

Consonants

Panglo has 21 consonant sounds. They are represented in the writing system by 19 Latin letters and their combinations.

Panglo	IPA	Pronunciation advise
B	/b/
C	/ts/	Like ts in bits or alternatively like c in city.
Ch	/tʃ/	Always like ch in chat.
D	/d/
F	/f/
G	/g/	Always hard as in get. Never soft as in gel.
H	/h/
J	/dʒ/	Always like J in judge_ or the soft g in gel.
K	/k/
L	/l/
M	/m/
N	/n/
P	/p/
R	/r~ɹ/	Always voiced as in American English. Can be trilled as in Indian English. Never silent!
S	/s/	Always voiceless like s in sister.
Sh	/ʃ/	Like sh in shop.
T	/t/
V	/v/
W	/w/
X	/ks/
Y	/j/	Like y in yes.
Z	/z/

External letters and sounds

There are also additional letters and letter-combinations, which can be used only in external words, which do not belong to the common Panglo vocabulary, like names of specific places and individual people. They are not used in any common Panglo words.

Panglo	IPA	Pronunciation advise
Kh	/x/	Voiceless velar fricative, like ch in Loch in Scottish.
Gh	/ɣ/	Voiced velar fricative
Ph	/ɸ/	Voiceless bilabial fricative
Bh	/β/	Voiced bilabial fricative
Q	/q/	Voiceless uvular stop
Qh	/χ/	Voiceless uvular fricative
Rh	/ʀ~ʁ/	Voiced uvular trill or fricative like rh in rhume in Parisian French.
Th	/θ/	Like th in thing.
Dh	/ð/	Like th in they.
Zh	/ʒ/	Like z in azure.

The additional letters and digraphs are used locally. Their purpose is to help to transfer names in local languages to the international language, so that local people can recognize them. It's OK if you don't know how to pronounce any of these sounds. Just pronounce the first letter and ignore the H.

For example, the capital of Greece is called "Αθήνα" /aθina/ in the local language, Greek. The Panglo version of this name is "Athina". It can be pronounced either /aθina/ (as the Greek do) or /atina/ (in the simplified international accent). We want to preserve the sound of this word as much as possible, but we can't use any of the non-Latin letters, so it becomes "Athina" in Panglo.

Examples:
Athina Athens (the capital of Greece)
Khartum Khartoum (the capital of Sudan)
Rhone Rhône (a river in France and Switzerland)
Rhein Rhine (a river that flows through Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein, Germany, France and the Netherlands)

Word Structure

Panglo words are structurally rather simple. A syllable can include in maximum:

one initial consonant
one liquid consonant (L or R)
one or two vowels, and
one final consonant from the following: M, N, NG, L, R, F, S, and SH.

Some of the heaviest words in practice are kristal and simple.

In addition, the following middle consonant groups are allowed: -kn-, -ks-, -tn- and -tm-. They are found in a handful of loan words from Greek and Latin, like tekne (technique), axe (axis), etne (ethnicity) and ritme (rhythm).

Adapting Loan Words

As a general rule, loan words are adapted to the phonetic spelling system of Panglo. This rule is applied to both common words and proper names.

Common words

A common word refers to a thing as a member of a group, not as an individual. For example dog is a common word but Mutt is not, it is a proper name.

Common words, which are in general use, must fit into the normal word structure, and they can include only the normal sounds of Panglo.

Panglo doesn't have the TH sounds that exist in English, so they are usually realized as T and D in words that are borrowed from English. For example di ('the'), de ('they'), tri ('three'), and ting ('thing').

Proper names

Infrequently used common nouns and proper nouns can be more complex than ordinary words, and they can include external sounds that don't belong to the normal sound inventory of Panglo.

For example, family name Smith may remain Smith in Panglo, although it is structurally more complex than common Panglo words, and it has the external TH sound.

Large and small letters

Both large and small letters (i.e. upper-case and lower-case letters) are used in writing Panglo.

Large letters are used in two situations: to begin a proper name, and to represent a name or another word with only the initial letter.

The first word of sentences is not capitalized.

Proper names

Personal names and other proper names are capitalized mostly in the same way as in English. For example Thomas Stearns Eliot is written Tomas Sternz Eliot in Panglo, and it can be abbreviated to initial letters variously Tomas S Eliot, TS Eliot and TSE.

In titles of artistic works, like books, songs and films, every word begins with a large letter. For example, Di Senyer Of Di Ring (The Lord of the Rings).

Acronyms

Initialisms, like ASEAN, EU, NAFTA and UN, are always written in large letters. Other acronyms may use a mixture of large and small letters, like for example GULag, which is an acronym of the Russian words "Glavnoye Upravleniye Lagerey".

Capital letters are also used in the standard international acronyms. For example: 10 Mb (ten megabit), 100 GB (hunde gigabait), 2 mm (due milimitre), 1 kJ (un kilojul).

Syllabification

[-] Words may be divided into syllables with a hyphen. The hyphen is placed between spoken syllables. For example: bus, ka-fe, yu-mor, pos-te, a-me-ri-ka-nis-me.

Punctuation

« . » All kinds of sentences may end with a full stop.

« ? » Questions may end alternatively with a question mark.

« ! » Exclamation mark indicates loudness or emphasis.

« ... » Three dots (i.e. ellipsis) indicates incompleteness or uncertainty.

« : » Colon indicates the beginning of an explanation, quotation or list.

« , » Comma indicates a small pause or separation between clauses or listed items.

Because the first word of sentences is not capitalized, a space may be inserted before and after the punctuation mark that ends the sentence. This practice helps to put sentences clearly apart.

(1) sal!  tu gud, he?  mi van go to bazar.  tu van kom kon mi, he?
(2) sal ! tu gud, he ? mi van go to bazar. tu van kom kon mi, he ?

In informal texts, smileys, emoticons and emojis may be used like punctuation marks to end sentences but in addition they indicate the mood of the speaker. For example :) indicates happiness and :( indicates sadness.

mi love yu :) – I love you.
yu no love mi :( – You don't love me.

Nouns

A noun is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.

Nouns are unchanging in Panglo. The same form of the word is used regardless of number and definiteness. Number, definiteness and other categories are expressed by separate words.

Number

In Panglo, nouns are the same in all numbers. Nouns don't change to indicate is there one (i.e. singular) or many (i.e. plural) instances of the thing that the noun refers to. So it's not like English where the singular and the plural of nouns are usually different: one man but many men, one ox but many oxen, one cat but many cats. Rather, all Panglo words are like the word "sheep" is in English, which you count one sheep, two sheep, three sheep, etc.

In Panglo, the number of things is indicated with number words and other quantity words.

un haus – one house
due haus – two houses
tri haus – three houses
for haus – four houses

All number words can be found in the chapter about numerals.

Common words for indicating plurality include som (some) and meni (many).

som haus – some houses
meni haus – many houses

Definite and indefinite articles

Definite articles, like "the" in English, are used when we are referring to a specific thing or something that has been mentioned before. Indefinite articles, like "a" and "an" in English, refer to a non-specific thing or something that has not been mentioned before.

If you know what you want, you just use a definite article, and if you don’t know what you want, you use an indefinite article.

Indefinite articles

There are two indefinite articles in Panglo, un is used when we refer to one non-specific thing, and som is used when we refer to many things.

un apel – an apple or one apple
som apel – some apples

un haus – a house or one house
som haus – some houses

Definite articles

There are two definite articles in Panglo, da is used when we refer to one specific thing, and di is used when we refer to many things.

da man – the man
di man – the men

da haus – the house
di haus – the houses

Proper names

Adaptation to Panglo

Proper names are typically adapted to the writing system of Panglo. For example, it is obviously better to use Moskva (Moscow) instead of "Москва", and Beijing (Peking) instead of "北京" in the international language. Likewise it is probably better to use Tuson instead of "Tucson", Marsei instead of "Marseille", and Kishineu instead of "Chișinău" in order to ensure correct pronunciation.

Titles of respect

Names of people can be tagged with titles of respect sa, ma, pa. They are meant to show respect and politeness.

sa is the universal title of respect. It can be used in formal and informal situations and for all age groups, social groups and genders. The closest translation for it in English is Mr or Ms or Mx.

ma can be used when addressing any woman regardless of age, social status, and marital status. It translates to several titles in English including Mrs, Miss, Ms, Madam and Ma'am.

pa can be used when addressing any man regardless of age, social status, and marital status. It translates to several titles in English including Mister and Sir.

There are different customs concerning honorific titles in different cultures. In some cultures it is not polite to use someone's name without using a title of respect before it. Therefore it is advisable to use them always when you meet new people from different cultures.

A title of respect can be used with a given name, a family name, or both.

sa Bili King – Mx Billy King
sa Bili – Mx Billy
sa King – Mx King

It is always polite to use the gender-neutral title. However, some people have are more accustomed to using the male and female titles.

pa Felipe Gonzales – Mr Felipe Gonzales
pa Felipe – Mr Felipe
pa Gonzales – Mr Gonzales

The order of the given name and the family name may be different in different cultures. For example in Chinese it is common to put the family name first.

ma Wang Lili – Ms Lili Wang
ma Lili – Ms Lili
ma Wang – Ms Wang

Modifiers

A modifier is a word that adds a particular quality or description, such as good, bad, big, and fast, to another word. In Panglo, there is only one class of modifiers. The same word can modify nouns and verbs, whereas in English only adjectives can modify nouns and only adverbs can modify verbs. For example, the word bele ('beautiful' or 'beautifully') modifies a noun in sentence A and a verb in sentence B.

A. da der es un bele kitab. – That is a beautiful writing.
B. tu bele li kitab. – You write beautifully.

Modifying nouns

In Panglo, "adjectives" are modifiers that are placed before the noun that they modify.

da nuve haus – the new house
da bele haus – the beautiful house
da nuve bele haus – the new beautiful house

Comparison

Equality is expressed with the word az (as, like).

da az nuve haus – the equally new house

Comparatives are made using the words mor (more) and les (less).

un mor nuve haus – a newer house
un les nuve haus – a less new house

Superlatives are made using the words maxim (maximally, the most) and minim (minimally, the least).

da maxim nuve haus – the newest house
da minim bele haus – the least beautiful house

The point of comparison is introduced with az ('than').

yu's haus is mor nuve az de's haus. – Your house is newer than their house.
de's haus is les nuve az yu's haus. – Their house is less new than your house.

Equality is introduced with sim ('same, equally').

vi's haus is sim nuve az yu's haus. – Our house is as new as your house.

Numerals

The basic numbers sound almost the same in Panglo as in English. However, greater numbers are arranged more logically in Panglo.

Ones	Ten and over	20 and over	30 and over
0 zero	10 (un) ten	20 due ten	30 tri ten
1 un	11 ten un	21 due ten un	31 tri ten un
2 due	12 ten due	22 due ten due	32 tri ten due
3 tri	13 ten tri	23 due ten tri	33 tri ten tri
4 for	14 ten for	24 due ten for	34 tri ten for
5 faif	15 ten faif	25 du ten faif	35 tri ten faif
6 sixe	16 ten sixe	26 due ten sixe	36 tri ten sixe
7 seven	17 ten seven	27 due ten seven	37 tri ten seven
8 eite	18 ten eite	28 due ten eite	38 tri ten eite
9 nain	19 ten nain	29 due ten nain	39 tri ten nain

Ones	Tens	Hundreds	Thousands
0 zero
1 un	10 (un) ten	100 un hunde	1000 un tauzen
2 due	20 due ten	200 due hunde	2000 due tauzen
3 tri	30 tri ten	300 tri hunde	3000 tri tauzen
4 for	40 for ten	400 for hunde	4000 for tauzen
5 faif	50 faif ten	500 faif hunde	5000 faif tauzen
6 sixe	60 sixe ten	600 sixe hunde	6000 sixe tauzen
7 seven	70 seven ten	700 seven hunde	7000 seven tauzen
8 eite	80 eite ten	800 eite hunde	8000 eite tauzen
9 nain	90 nain ten	900 nain hunde	9000 nain tauzen

Greater numbers follow the same logic.

10'000 un ten tauzen
100'000 un hunde tauzen
1'000'000 un milion
10'000'000 un ten milion
100'000'000 un hunde milion
1'000'000'000 un tauzen milion

Note: The words "billion" and "milliard" are not used in Panglo because their meanings are different from country to country. Instead, one should say tauzen milion (thousand millions) or giga.

The prefixes of the International System of Units (SI) are used in common language in Panglo. It is normal to say, for example:
eite giga person bi live in Dunia.
– Eight billion (or milliard) people live on Earth.

Prefix	Symbol	Base 10	Decimal
deka	da	10¹	10
heto	h	10²	100
kilo	k	10³	1'000
mega	M	10⁶	1'000'000
giga	G	10⁹	1'000'000'000
tera	T	10¹²	1'000'000'000'000
peta	P	10¹⁵	1'000'000'000'000'000
exa	E	10¹⁸	1'000'000'000'000'000'000
zeta	Z	10²¹	1'000'000'000'000'000'000'000
yota	Y	10²⁴	1'000'000'000'000'000'000'000'000

Cardinal number before noun

Quantity can be expressed with numerals and other quantity-words. They are put before the word or phrase that they qualify.

un star – one star
du star – two stars
tri star – three stars
kam star – few stars
meni star – many stars

un dai kursi – one big chair
du dai kursi – two big chairs
tri dai kursi – three big chairs

Ordinal numbers

Ordinal numbers are similar to cardinal numbers but they are placed after the noun that they modify.

parte un – part one (the first part)
parte du – part two (the second part)
parte tri – part three (the third part)

Classifiers of measurement

The classifier of measurement or a measure word is a word that occurs between a numeral and a noun. It indicates how the referent of the noun is measured, contained or packaged. Classifiers of measurement is an open class of words, which includes, among many others, litre 'liter', mitre 'meter', botle 'bottle', kupa 'cup, mug', pake 'package', pote 'pot', sake 'bag, sack', tin 'can, tin' tong 'cask, barrel'.

Measure words are used in this simple structure: number + measure word + se + noun.

du litre se jus – two liters of juice
tri metre se kable – three meters of wire
un kupa se kafe – a cup of cofee
du botle se vin – two bottles of wine
tri sake se patato – three sacks of potatoes
for tin se limon jus – four cans of lemonade

Fractions

Fractions are formed with the help of the word parte 'part'.

Fractions can be interpreted in two ways. Firstly, the word parte can be interpreted as a classifier of measurement. Then, for example, du parte tri is interpreted as 'two parts of three (parts)'. Secondly, the last numeral can be understood as an ordinal number that modifies parte. Then, for example, du parte tri is interpreted as 'two thirds'. Both interpretations lead to the same result that du parte tri stands for '2/3' in mathematical symbols.

un parte du – a half (½)
un parte for – one fourth, one quarter (¼)
tri parte for – three fourths, three quarters (¾)
un parte hunde – one hundredth, one percent (1%)
un parte tauzen – one thousandth, one permille (1‰)

Fractions are connected to their noun head with se.

un parte du se haur – a half (of an) hour
faif ten parte hunde se jen – fifty percent of people
du parte tri se keke – two thirds of a cake

In addition, there is also a longer pattern for forming fractions. It uses the pattern X of Y parte ('X of Y parts').

un of du parte – one of two parts, a half (½)
un of for parte – one of four parts, a quarter (¼)
tri of for parte – three of four parts, three quarters (¾)
un of hunde parte – one of hundred parts, a percent (1%)
un of tauzen parte – one of thousand parts, a permille (1‰)

Months

The names of the months are:

Januari – January
Februari – February
Marte – March
April – April
Mai – May
June – June
Yuli – July
Auguste – August
Setembre – September
Otobre – October
Novembre – November
Desembre – December

In addition there is Ramazan (Ramadan), the holy ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar.

Alternatively there is also a number-based system of naming.

mes un – January
mes due – February
mes tri – March
mes for – April
mes faif – May
mes sixe – June
mes seven – July
mes eite – August
mes nain – September
mes ten – October
mes ten un – November
mes ten du – December

Days of the week

In ancient Greece, the days of the week were named after the Seven Luminaries, which consist of the Sun, Moon and the five planets that are visible to the naked eye. Each of the luminaries was also represented by a deity. This system spread to Rome, India, China and almost all across the world.

In English, the Roman deities were substituted by Germanic deities: Sunday = sun's day, Monday = moon's day, Tuesday = Tiw's day, Wednesday = Woden's day, Thursday = Thor's day, and Saturday = Saturn's day.

In Panglo, the names of the days of the week follow the Roman system, whereas the English system involved Germanic deities.

Luminary	Day of the week
Sole	soledi
Sun	Sunday
Lune	lunedi
moon	Monday (moon's day)
Marte	martedi
Mars	Tuesday (Tiw's day)
Merkur	merkurdi
Mercury	Wednesday (Woden's day)
Jove	jovedi
Jupiter	Thursday (Thor's day)
Venera	venerdi
Venus	Friday (Frige's day)
Saturne	saturdi
Saturn	Saturday (Saturn's day)

Alternatively there is also a number-based system of naming.

vike dey un – Monday (the 1st day of the week)
vike dey due – Tuesday (the 2nd day of the week)
vike dey tri – Wednesday (the 3rd day of the week)
vike dey for – Thursday (the 4th day of the week)
vike dey faive – Friday (the 5th day of the week)
vike dey sixe – Saturday (the 6th day of the week)
vike dey seven – Sunday (the 7th day of the week)

However, this is an unreliable system because the first day of the week can be different in different countries. In addition it is important to differentiate the days of the week (vike dey) and the days of the month (mes dey).

Time

The normal pattern for telling time is haur H e M, where H stands for hours and M stands for minutes. We always use this direct pattern, and we never use words like past and to in Panglo.

haur tri – three o'clock
haur tri e siro – three o'clock sharp
haur tri e faif – three oh-five – or five past three
haur tri e ten – three ten – or ten past three
haur tri e ten faif – three fifteen – or quarter past three
haur tri e tri ten – three thirty – or half past three
haur tri e for ten faif – three forty-five – or quarter to four
haur tri e faif ten – three fifty – or ten to four
haur tri e faif ten faif – three-fifty-five – or five to four

The 24 hour clock

Normally we use the 24 hour clock to tell the time in Panglo.

01:00 = haur un – one o'clock ~ one hundred hours
01:15 = haur un e ten faif – one fifteen ~ one hundred fifteen hours
01:30 = haur un e tri ten – one thirty ~ one hundred thirty hours
13:00 = haur ten tri – thirteen o'clock ~ thirteen hundred hours
13:15 = haur ten tri e ten faif – thirteen fifteen ~ thirteen hundred fifteen hours
13:30 = haur ten tri e tri ten – thirteen thirty ~ thirteen hundred thirty hours

The 12 hour clock

The 12 hour clock splits the day into two 12 hour sections. One lasts from midnight to noon and the second half lasts from noon to midnight. Hours before noon are called AM (pronounced ah-em), which comes from the phrase ante mide den, which means 'before midday'. Hours after noon are called PM (pronounced peh-em), which comes from the phrase pos mide den, which means 'after midday'.

Before midday we say:

🕐 = haur un AM – one AM
🕜 = haur un e tri ten AM – one thirty AM
🕔 = haur faif AM – five AM
🕙 = haur ten AM – ten AM

After midday we say:

🕐 = haur un PM – one PM
🕜 = haur un e tri ten PM – one thirty PM 🕔 = haur faif PM – five PM
🕙 = haur ten PM – ten PM

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns and noun phrases in a sentence. They keep us from repeating the same words over and over again. Here's an example of a sentence without pronouns:
My mother is a teacher but my mother is also a singer and my mother sings beautifully.
It sounds clumsy and repetitive. Here's the same sentence with a personal pronoun:
My mother is a teacher but she is also a singer and she sings beautifully.
The latter sentence sounds fluent and smooth.

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns in Panglo are:

Singular	Plural
mi	vi
'I, me'	'we'
tu	yu
'you'	'you all'
hi	de
'he or she'	'they'

All pronouns can be used for all genders. In Panglo, personal pronouns do not specify whether the person discussed is a woman or a man. For example, in the third person, one word – hi – refers to women, men and people of other genders alike. It is a gender-neutral personal pronoun and it treats everyone equally.

The singular 2nd person pronoun tu can be used in all situations, both formal and informal, regardless of differences in social status and age of the speakers. In this way it is similar to Swedish du. However, some speakers may prefer to use tu only with family and intimate friends. Then its usage is comparable to German du, French tu, Russian ты (ty) and Hindi tū.

It is always acceptable to use the plural pronoun yu instead of the singular pronoun tu.

There are three first-person plural pronouns. yumi is the inclusive we that includes the audience: 'you, I and other people'. demi is the exclusive we that excludes the audience: 'I and other people only'. Finally, vi is the neutral we that can be both inclusive and exclusive. It is also the most common first-person plural pronoun, and the other two are used only occasionally.

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns are made simply by combining a basic pronoun with the possessive marker 's.

Singular	Plural
mi's	vi's
'my'	'our'
tu's	yu's
'your'	'your'
hi's	de's
'his or her'	'their'

Reflexive pronoun

The reflexive pronoun is used when the object of a sentence is the same as the subject.

sef – self

Note! The same reflexive pronoun sef is used for all persons, so it corresponds to English myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves and themselves all at once.

mi vize sef. – I see myself.
hi vize sef. – She sees herself. / He sees himself. / It sees itself.
vi vize sef. – We see ourselves.

The expression unaltre is used as the reciprocal pronoun.

unaltre – each other, one another

tu e mi vize unaltre. – You and I see each other.
vi vize unaltre. – We see each other.

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are used with nouns to make them more specific.

Panglo has two main demonstrative pronouns:

da this, that
di these, those

As they do not differentiate between near and far, they can be further qualified by adding hir (here) or der (there).

da hir haus – this house
di hir haus – these houses
da der haus – that house
di der haus – those houses

The proximal demonstrative da hir points to things that are close to the speaker in terms of physical distance or relation. The distal demonstrative da der points to things that are futher away from the speaker in terms of physical distance or relation.

tu van da der buk, he? – Do you want that book?
no, mi van da hir buk, no da der. – No, I want this book, not that.

The demonstratives can serve as subjects and objects in the same way as nouns.

da hir es gud. – This is good.
da der es bad. – That is bad.
tu van da hir, he? – Do you want this?
no, mi van da der. – No, I want that.

When the verb is a content word, there needs to be a modal particle, like ye or no, between the subject and the verb.

mi vize du jen. – I see two persons.
da hir ye gani e da der no gani. – This one sings and that one doesn't sing.

The basic proximal and distal pronouns are used for introducing a new object. The topical demonstrative da, on the other hand, does not specify physical distance but it is used when the speaker has already mentioned the object or person in question and it is known by the audience or is topical within the discourse.

da hir es mau. da van yam da der mushu. – This is a cat. It wants to eat that mouse.

mi have un mau e un vaf. da vaf es dai. hi bi yam muche yam. – I have a cat and a dog. The dog is big. It eats a lot of food.

Abstract use

The demonstrative pronouns can be used also discourse internally. Then they refer to abstract entities of discourse, not concrete objects. da refers to things previously spoken, da hir refers to things currently being spoken, and da der refers to things about to be spoken.

da hir jumla es korte. – This sentence is short.

In the above, da hir jumla (this sentence) refers to the sentence being spoken.

mi seme da der: mi love tu. – I mean this: I love you. OR I mean that I love you.
mi love tu. mi seme da. – I love you. That is what I mean.

In the above, the pronoun da der refers to the content of the next statement and da refers to the content of the previous statement.

Interrogative pronouns

There are two interrogative pronouns in Panglo.

vat – what
hu – who

The interrogative pronoun takes the place of the questioned thing in the phrase. It is not placed in the beginning of the phrase unlike normally in English.

vat es da? – What is it?
hu es hi? – Who is he ~ she?
yu van vat? – What do you want? (Literally: You want what?)
vat es a meza. – What is on the table?
hu es in haus. – Who is in the house?

The possessive interrogative pronoun is built like the other possessive pronouns.

hu's – whose

hu's haus es da? – Whose hose is that?

Adjectives are questioned with hau.

hau nove? – How new?
hau koste? – How costy?
hau meni? – How many?
hau kam? – How few?
hau dai? – How big?
hau let? – How small?

tu have hau dai mau? – How big a cat do you have?

Table of pronominals

A pronominal phrase is an expression that consists of several words and functions syntactically as a pronoun. Panglo's pronominal phrases can be arranged in a regular table of pronominals as below.

Category	Interrogative	Demonstrative	Indefinite	Universal	Negative	Alternative	Elective
ting	vat ting	da ting	som ting	evri ting	no ting	otre ting	eni ting
Thing	what (thing)	that thing	something	everything	nothing	another	anything
von	hu; vat von	da von	som von	evri von	no von	otre von	eni von
Individual	who; which one	that one	someone	every one	no-one	another	anyone
have	hu's	da von's	som von's	evri von's	no von's	otre von's	eni von's
Possession	whose	that one's	someone's	everyone's	no-one's	another's	anyone's
plas	vat plas	da plas	som plas	evri plas	no plas	otre plas	eni plas
Location	where	there	somewhere	everywhere	nowhere	elsewhere	anywhere
tem	vat tem	da tem	som tem	evri tem	no tem	otre tem	eni tem
Time	when, what time	that time	sometime	always, all the time	never	another time	any time
vei	vat vei	da vei	som vei	evri vei	no vei	otre vei	eni vei
Manner	how	in that way	somehow	in every way	in no way	otherwise	anyway
tip	vat tip	da tip	som tip	evri tip	no tip	otre tip	eni tip
Kind, sort	what kind of	that kind of	some kind of	all kinds of	no kind of	another type of	any kind of
monta	vat monta	da monta	som monta	evri monta	no monta	otre monta	eni monta
Amount	how much	so much	some	all	none	other amount	any amount

Verbs

Verbs are unchanging in Panglo. Things like person, number, time and mood are indicated by separate words, not by changing the form of verbs as in English and other languages.

Person and number

Person and number are indicated by the subject. For example, the verb es ('to be') has the same form in all persons.

mi es frende. – I am a friend.
tu es frende. – You are a friend.
hi es frende. – He/she is a friend.
vi es frende. – We are friends.
yu es frende. – You are friends.
de es frende. – They are friends.

Also a noun can serve as subject.

mau es hevan. – The cat is an animal.

Voice, time and mood

Verb tenses, moods and voices are expressed with auxiliary verbs, which come first in the verb phrase. The order of the auxiliaries is tense, mood and aspect. The tense marker is first, the mood marker is next, and the aspect marker is last.

Tense

Tense is a property that expresses time reference. The main tenses are the past, present, and future. The marker did indicates the past tense, nun indicates the present tense, and vil indicates the future tense. More specific time references are expressed with various time expressions, like yesterday, tomorrow or one hour ago.

man did yam ban. – The man ate (or did eat) bread.
man nun yam ban. – The man eats bread (now).
man vil yam ban. – The man will eat bread.

It is also possible to express the future in the past with a combination of two tense markers.

man did vil yam ban. – The man was going to eat bread.

Aspect

Aspect expresses how an action or event extends over time. There are two aspect markers in Panglo, bi and hav.

The marker bi indicates that the action or event is on-going or in progress at the time, which the speaker is talking about. The time can be indicated with a tense marker.

man bi yam ban. – The man is, was or will be eating bread.
man did bi yam ban. – The man was eating bread.
man nun bi yam ban. – The man is eating bread.
man vil bi yam ban. – The man will be eating bread.

The marker hav indicates that the action or event is completed and its results still has an effect at the time, which the speaker is talking about. The time can be indicated with a tense markers.

man hav yam ban. – The man had, has or will have eaten bread.
man did hav yam ban. – The man had eaten bread.
man nun hav yam ban. – The man has eaten bread.
man vil hav yam ban. – The man will have eaten bread.

Mood

The conditional mood is used for anything that could take place. It indicates that the realization of an action or event depends on another condition. The conditional mood is expressed with the auxiliary verb vud ('would'). This marker is used in both main and subordinate clauses.

mi vud van yam. – I would like to eat.
mi vud go to Dubai. – I would go to Dubai.
mi vud go, if tu vud las mi. – I would go if you would let me.
tu no vud es suka, if mi vud go. – You would not be happy, if I would go.

The auxiliary verb shud ('should, ought') indicates some kind of expectation like duty, obligation, requirement, desire, advisability or likelihood.

ma voka vi. vi shud go. – Mother called us. We should go.
hi shud hav kom pre nun. – He should have come by now.
evri von shud vote. – Everyone should vote.

The imperative mood is used to form a command or request. In Panglo, the imperative is created with the auxiliary verb shal. It can be used to give commands to any person, not just "you".

vi shal go! – Let us go! ~ Let's go!
de shal kurse! – Let them run!

shal can be used to give commands also to the second person, but it is common to drop both the personal pronoun and the auxiliary verb in order to give the command more force.

tu shal kom! = kom! – Come!
yu shal kom! = kom! – Come (you all)!

Passive clause

The passive clause expresses that the subject undergoes the action or has its state changed. In other words, the subject has a passive role. This contrasts with the active clause where the subject is the agent or the doer of the action. In Panglo, the passive clause is constructed with the help of the auxiliary verb ben.

Active: de yam piza. – They eat pizza.
Passive: piza ben yam. – Pizza is eaten.

The agent of the action can be expressed also in passive clauses by using the preposition be.

mi's kar did ben bate be tren. – My car was hit by a train.

Summary of verb forms

Active

	Past	Present	Future	Conditional
Simple	*hi did yam* 'he ate ~ did eat'	*hi yam* 'he eats'	*hi vil yam* 'he will eat'	*hi vud yam* 'he would eat'
Perfect	*hi did hav yam* 'he had eaten'	*hi hav yam* 'he has eaten'	*hi vil hav yam* 'he will have eaten'	*hi vud hav yam* 'he would have eaten'
Progressive	*hi did bi yam* 'he was eating'	*hi bi yam* 'he is eating'	*hi vil bi yam* 'he will be eating'	*hi vud bi yam* 'he would be eating'
Perfect progressive	*hi did hav bi yam* 'he had been eating'	*hi hav bi yam* 'he has been eating'	*hi vil hav bi yam* 'he will have been eating'	*hi vud hav bi yam* 'he would have been eating'
Imperative		*yam!* 'Eat!'

Note! In the above table, hi is translated only 'he' instead of the usual 'he or she' in order to save space.

Passive

	Past	Present	Future	Conditional
Simple	*hi did ben yam* 'it was eaten'	*hi ben yam* 'it is eaten'	*hi vil ben yam* 'it will be eaten'	*hi vud ben yam* 'it would be eaten'
Perfect	*hi did hav ben yam* 'it had been eaten'	*hi hav ben yam* 'it has been eaten'	*hi vil hav ben yam* 'I will have been eaten'	*hi vud hav ben yam* 'it would have been eaten'
Progressive	*hi did bi ben yam* 'it was being eaten'	*hi bi ben yam* 'it is being eaten'	*hi vil bi ben yam* 'it will be being eaten'	*hi vud bi ben yam* 'it would be being eaten'
Perfect progressive	*hi did hav bi ben yam* 'it had been being eaten'	*hi hav bi ben yam* 'it has been being eaten'	*hi vil hav bi ben yam* 'it will have be being eaten'	*hi vud hav bi ben yam* 'it would have been being eaten'
Imperative		*ben yam!* 'Be eaten!'

Transitivity

In general, there are three types of verbs.

Transitive verbs need a direct object, which is the target of the action.
Intransitive verbs don't accept an object. Then the action is directed to the subject.
Ambitransitive verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.

Panglo verbs are typically ambitransitive i.e. they may or may not require an object depending on the sentence structure. When there is an object, the verb is transtive, and when there isn't an object, the verb is intransitive.

mi bule sui. – I boil water. (transitive sentence)
sui bule. – Water boils. (intransitive sentence)
baker bake ban. – The baker bakes bread. (transitive sentence)
ban bake in tanur. – Bread bakes in the oven. (intransitive sentence)

Serial verb construction

Serial verb construction is a string of verbs that share the same subject, which is before the verbs. In serial verb constructions the verbs are interpreted so that the first verb (an auxiliary verb) is something that the subject possesses and the second verb is something that the subject does (when there is an object in the end) or experiences (when there is no object).

mi kan kitab da javab.
≈ I have the ability to write the answer.
– I can write the answer.
mi halal kitab da javab.
≈ I have the permission to write the answer.
– I may write the answer.
mi mus kitab da javab.
≈ I have the compulsion to write the answer.
– I must write the answer.

Note that the same auxiliary verbs can be used alone as transitive verbs in the pivot construction.

guru halal mi kitab da javab. – The teacher permits me to write the answer.
guru mus mi kitab da javab. – The teacher compels me to write the answer.

Word Derivation

Making new words from existing words is called word derivation. Often a new word is made by adding a prefix or suffix, such as un- and -ness in English. For example, un-happy and happi-ness are derived from the root word happy.

New words can be built freely in Panglo! Panglo has a word derivation system that is regular and productive.

Zero Derivation

Zero derivation means conversion of a word of a certain word class to a different word class without any change in form. This is very common in Panglo, where most words don't belong to any fixed word classes. Instead, the word class is determined by the word's place in the sentence.

For example, the word hali can function equally as an adjective (blank or void), noun (a blank) and verb (to make blank or to get blank).

tu hav hali papir, he? – Do you have some blank paper?
don mi un hali! – Give me a blank!
tu mus hali da lexe. – You must blank out that word.

Likewise, the word kitab can function as a verb (to write), a noun (a writing) and adjective (written or textual).

mi kitab letre. – I write a letter.
letre es kitab misaje. – A letter is a written message.
mi love yu's kitab. – I love your writings.

Compound Words

A compound word is a word that is formed of two or more simpler words in order to yield a new meaning. The last word is the most meaningful part in the compound and the preceding words only modify its meaning. New compound words can be created freely and easily in Panglo. There are two types of compound words in Panglo, open compounds and closed compounds.

An open compound is simply a series of base words put next to each other. They are written separately and there is a space between each pair of words. For example, tomato 'tomato' + sos 'sauce' = tomato sos 'tomato sauce',

Closed compounds are written together and there is no space between the words. For example, poste 'mail' + kan 'place for working' = postekan 'post office'. Typically closed compounds include affixes. Affixes are word-like units that have special properties. Some of them are not stand-alone words, they can only appear as part of another word.

Panglo's system of word derivation is designed to produce compound words that look and/or sound so close to international words that they are easy to recognize. They are not meant to be identical with words in English or in any other language, because international words tend to be written and pronounced in more or less different ways from language to language, anyway. In fact, many compound words are built in a different way in Panglo than in European languages, though the results usually look mostly similar.

Affixes

Affixes, i.e. prefixes and suffixes, are very important and give great flexibility to the language. They are joined together with the base word.

Panglo has adopted international prefixes, including a-, de-, pro-, re- and su- among others, in order to re-create many international words as native Panglo words.

         a-      'to, toward'
   +    ses      'go, pass'
____________
=      ases      'get past to, access'

       pro-      'forward, to the front'
   +    ses      'go, pass'
____________
=    proses      'pass forward, process'

        re-      'back to'
   +    ses      'go, pass'
____________
=     reses      'pass back, recede'

        de-      'away, off'
   +    ses      'go, pass'
____________
=     deses      'pass away, die'

        su-      'good, well'
   +    ses      'go, pass'
____________
=     suses      'go well, succeed'

Note that these international prefixes are used only in compound words that really mean the sum their parts. Fossilized words whose meanings are no longer the sum of their parts, like evolution (originally 'rolling out'), are not compound words in Panglo.

Many suffixes have two forms, one that begins with a vowel and one that begins with a consonant. The vowel-initial form is used when the base word ends in a consonant or in the vowel -e, which disappears before the suffix. Below we add the vowel-initial suffix -ik to a base word that ends in a consonant.

         fiz       'body'
   +     -ik       'adjectival suffix'
_____________
=      fizik       'bodily, physical'

The consonant-intial form is used when the base word ends in any other vowel except -e. Below we add the consonant-initial suffix -tik to a base word that ends in another vowel.

        tema       'theme, topic'
   +    -tik       'adjectival suffix'
_____________
=    tematik       'thematic, topical'

The vowel-initial suffix -ik and the consonant-initial suffix -tik are alternative forms of one and the same underlying suffix, (t)ik, which has an optional initial sound. The surface form of the suffix depends on the properties of the base word.

Another suffix with two forms is (o)krat. Its vowel-initial form is -okrat and its consonant initial form is -krat. So this time the optional sound is a vowel (and not a consonant as in (t)ik).

Below we add this suffix to a base word that ends in -e.

         dem      'people, public'
  +  (o)krat      'rule, govern'
  +      -ia      'collective noun suffix'
______________
=  demokratia     'democracy, rule by the public'

Next we add the suffix to a base word that ends in another vowel.

       media      'the media'
  +  (o)krat      'rule, govern'
  +      -ia      'collective noun suffix'
______________
= mediakratia     'mediacracy, rule by the media'

Prefixes

a- ~ ad-

The prefix a- means that the action brings the agent and the object together.

sepe 'take, catch' → asepe 'take to oneself, accept'
liga 'tie' → aliga 'tie to oneself, ally'

de- ~ dez-

The prefix de- means that the action is directed away from or off something.

sep 'take, catch' → desep 'take away, remove'
dute 'lead, conduct' → dedute 'lead away, deduce'
parte 'part, chip' → departe 'part away, chip off'
kode 'code' → dekode 'decode, remove coding'
tap 'plug, cap, stopper' → detap 'unplug, remove the plug, cap or stopper'
information 'information' → dezinformation 'disinformation, information that is meant to lead away from the truth'

dis-

The prefix dis- means that the action is directed apart or in many directions.

trat 'draw' → distrat 'draw apart, distract'
turbe 'whirl, spin' → disturbe 'disturb'

dus-

The prefix dus- adds a quality of badness to the base word.

funte 'function' → dusfunte 'malfunction, dysfunction'
rup 'appearance, looks' → dusrupik 'bad-looking, ugly'
forma 'form' → dusforma 'malform'

en- ~ em-

The prefix en- indicates position in something, when it is prefixed to words with a static meaning. There are two forms of this prefix. The form em- is used when the following word begins with a b, p or m, and the form en- is used in all other cases.

demik 'populational' → endemik 'endemic, occuring in a population'
tene 'keep, hold' → entene 'keep in, hold in, inhold'

It indicates motion or transformation into something when it is prefixed to words with an active meaning.

jete 'thrust' → enjete 'thrust in, inject'
kluze 'close, shut' → enkluze 'close in, enclose, include'
kode 'code' → enkode 'encode'
amur 'love' → enamur 'fall in love, enamor'
porta 'transfer, bring' → emporta 'bring in, import'
sirke 'circle' → ensirke 'encircle, surround'

ex- ~ exo-

The prefix ex- means that the action is directed outside from something.

sep 'take, catch' → exsep 'take out, except'
jet 'thrust' → exjet 'thrust out, eject'

in- ~ im-

The prefix in- reverses the meaning of the adjective or noun to which it is prefixed. There are two forms of this prefix. The form im- is used when the following word begins with a b, p or m, and the form in- is used in all other cases.

abilita 'ability' → inabilita 'inability'
kredebil 'credible, believable' → inkredebil 'incredible, unbelievable'
populik 'popular' → impopulik 'unpopular'
perfat 'perfect' → imperfat 'imperfect'
deiste 'theist' → indeiste 'atheist'
alkolik 'alcoholic' → inalkolik 'unalcoholic'
homanik 'humane' → inhomanik 'unhumane'
uzebil 'usable' → inuzebil 'unusable'

kon- ~ kom- ~ ko-

The prefixes kon- and kom- mean 'together'. There are three forms of this prefix. The form kom- is used when the following word begins with a b, p or m, the form ko- is used when the following word begins with an n, r or l, and the form kon- is used in all other cases.

ten 'hold, keep' → konten 'keep together'
stru 'build, structure' → konstru 'construct, put together'
patia 'suffering' → kompatia 'suffering together, compassion'

per-

The prefix per- means that something is done completely, entirely or all the way through.

fat 'done' → perfat 'perfect, completely done'
uza 'use' → peruza 'use up'

pos-

The prefix pos- means that something is after in time or order.

pozi 'put, pose' → pospozi 'put after, postpone'
prodution 'production' → posprodution 'post-production'

pre-

The prefix pre- means that something is before in time or order.

pozi 'put, pose' → prepozi 'put before, prepend'
dit 'tell' → predit 'foretell, predict'
viz 'see' → previz 'foresee, preview'

pro-

The prefix pro- means that something is moved onward or into the open.

pozi 'put, pose' → propozi 'put forward, propose'
voka 'call, summon' → provoka 'call forth, provoke'

re-

The prefix re- means that something is done back or in the opposite direction than originally.

ate 'to act' → reate 'to act back, react'
turne 'to turn' → returne 'to turn back'

ri-

The prefix ri- means repetition or doing again.

forma 'form' → riforma 'form again, reform'
nat 'be born' → rinat 'be born again'
pley 'play' → ripley 'play again, replay'

sin- ~ sim-

The prefixes sin- and sim- mean '(for, to or at) the same'. There are two forms of this prefix. The form sim- is used when the following word begins with a b, p or m, and the form sin- is used in all other cases.

kronik 'timely, temporal, chronic' → sinkronik 'synchronic, happening at the same time'
metria 'measurement' → simmetria 'symmetry, equal measurements'
patia 'suffering' → simpatia 'feeling ~ suffering the same, sympathy'
mixe 'mix' → simmixe 'mix together, blend'

su-

The prefix su- adds the quality of goodness into the base word.

ses 'pass, go by' → suses 'go well, succeed'
rup 'appearance, looks' → surupik 'good-looking'

Suffixes

-aje

The suffix -aje means something that is made of or something that consists of the thing indicated by the base word.

bag 'bag' → bagaje 'baggage, luggage'
kor 'core' koraje 'guts, the things in the core'
mis 'send' → misaje 'something sent, message'
fas 'face' → fasaje 'facade, frontage'
limon 'lemon' → limonaje 'lemonade'

-al ~ -ial

The suffix -al means that something belongs to or is related to the thing or person indicated by the base word.

fin 'end' → final 'final, belonging to the end'
karne 'flesh' → karnal 'fleshly, related to flesh'

When -al is suffixed to a base word that ends in -ia, the endings merge together into -ial.

dunia 'world' → dunial 'worldly'
imperia 'empire' → imperial 'imperial'
nasia 'nation' → nasial 'national'
sosia 'society' → sosial 'societal, social' uneversia 'universe, everything'
→ uneversial 'universal, something that concerns everything and everyone'

-an ~ ian

The suffix -an denotes someone that is a member of a community, such as a country, city or a club. When this suffix is added to a base word that ends in -ia, they merge together into -ian.

Amerika 'America' → amerikan 'American'
Italia 'Italy' → italian 'Italian'
Rusia 'Russia' → rusian 'Russian'
Paris 'the city of Paris' → parisan 'Parisian'
kristia 'Christendom' → kristian 'Christian'

-bil

The suffix -bil means that something is possible or able to be done.

vize 'see, view' → vizebil 'one that can be seen, visible'
uza 'use' → uzabil 'one that can be used, usable'

-em ~ -tem

This rarely used suffix means a fundamental unit in the system of things that is indicated by the base word. For example, lexem ('lexeme') is the fundamental unit in the system of lexe 'words'. For example, spoke and spoken are individual words but they represent the same underlying fundamental unit, which is speak in its fundamental form. So the other forms are identified as variations of the fundamental form.

fon 'speech sound' → fonem 'phoneme, distinct speech sound'
lexe 'word' → lexem 'lexeme, fundamental unit of a family of words'
mit 'myth' → mitem 'mytheme, an archetypal story'

-en ~ -n

The active participle suffix -(e)n means 'one who does the action of the base word'.

es 'to be' → esen 'a being, one who is'
log 'to talk' → logen 'a talking one, one who talks'

This suffix has additional combining forms -ent- and -nt- which are used before other suffixes.

esen + -ia → esentia 'being, essence'
esen + -ik → esentik 'essential'

-er ~ -ter

The suffix -(t)er means 'a person who is occupied with the action of the base word'. It implies often but not always a professional occupation.

ate 'to do, to act' → ater 'doer, actor, one who does or acts'
bak 'to bake' → baker 'baker'
lid 'to lead' → lider 'leader, the one who leads'
filsof 'to think deeply' → filsofer 'philosopher'
sapat 'shoe' → sapater 'shoemaker'
musket 'musket' → musketer 'musketeer'
kas 'box, cash box' → kaser 'cashier'

-eria ~ -teria ~ ria

This suffix is the combination of -(t)er + -ia. It means the place for making, producing or selling the thing that is indicated by the base word.

bak 'to bake' → bakeria 'bakery'
perfum 'perfume' → perfumeria 'perfumery'
enjener 'engineer' → enjeneria 'engineering'

In some rare cases this suffix is trimmed into -ria.

piza 'pizza' → pizaria 'pizzeria, pizza place'

-et ~ -t

The passive participle suffix -(e)t expresses one who undergoes or has undergone the action of the root.

fa 'to make' → fat '(that which is or has been) done'
van 'to want' → vanet '(that which is or has been) wanted'
vize 'to view or see' → vizet '(that which is or has been) viewed or seen'
audi 'to hear' → audit '(that which is or has been) heard'

-fa ~ -ifa

The suffix -(i)fa means to make or turn into the thing that is indicated by the base word.

mei 'beautiful' → meifa 'make beautiful, beautify'
komple 'complex' → komplifa 'make complex, complexify'
long 'long' → longifa 'make long, lengthen'
un 'one' → unifa 'unite, unify'
klar 'clear' → klarifa 'make clear, clarify'

-filia ~ ofilia

The suffix -(o)filia means 'extraordinary or abnormal liking of something'.

bash 'language' → bashofilia 'glossophilia, linguaphilia, the love of language'
Rus 'Russia' → rusofilia 'Russophilia, strong liking of Russia or Russians'
tekne 'technology' → teknofilia 'technophilia, the love of technology'

-fobia ~ ofobia

The suffix -(o)fobia means 'extraordinary or abnormal dislike of something'.

arane 'spider' → aranofobia 'arachnophobia, the fear of spiders'
pan 'all-embracing' → panfobia 'panphobia, the fear of everything'
→ rusofobia Rus 'Russia' → rusofobia 'Russophobia, strong dislike of Russia or Russians'

-ia ~ -ya

The suffix -ia has a variety of meanings, but fundamentally it means a collective of things or a community of people.

nes 'island' → nesia 'archipelago'
lexe 'word' → lexia 'vocabulary'
homan 'human being' → homania 'humanity, mankind, all the human beings as a group'
kriste 'Christ' → kristia 'Christianity, all Christians as a group'

This ending is often used in place names, especially in country names. However it is not always used, and there are also many country names that do not end in -ia.

arab 'Arab, Arabic' → Arabia 'Arabia'
rus 'Russian, Ruski' → Rusia 'Russia'
turke 'Turk, Turkish' → Turkia 'Turkey'
ital 'Italic, Italian' → Italia 'Italy'
Asia 'Asia'
Indonesia 'Indonesia'

The same suffix is sometimes used also in names of smaller establishments.

sushi 'sushi' → sushiya 'sushi place or restaurant'

The suffix -ia is also used in names of scientific disciplines, where it can be understood as collection of scientific knowledge and practices.

kim 'chemical' → kimia 'chemistry'
filsof 'view, outlook, life wisdom' → filsofia 'philosophy, the discipline of wisdom'
loj 'to study and reason systematically' → lojia 'systematic study, logic'
biolojia 'biology, systematic study of organic life'
geolojia 'geology, systematic study of the ground'

-ik ~ -tik

The suffix -(t)ik means something that is characterized by the thing or quality indicated by the base word.

baz 'base, basis' → bazik 'basic'
fiz 'body' → fizik 'physical'
un 'one' → unik 'only, sole, single'
makin 'machine' → makinik 'machine-like, mechanical'
tema 'theme' → tematik 'thematic'

-im

The suffix -im means something that is in the position or rank that is indicated by the base word.

un 'one' → unim 'the first'
pre 'fore, front' → prim 'foremost, prime'
extre 'outside, exterior' → extrim 'outermost, extreme'

-ion ~ -tion

The suffix -(t)ion means 'an action or process'. ate 'act' → ation 'action'
dit 'say' → dition 'saying, diction'
konsum 'consume' → konsumion 'consumption'
rota 'wheel; to turn like a wheel' → rotation 'turning, rotation'

-isme

The suffix -isme means an ideology, a way of thinking or a way of life.

alkol 'alcohol' → alkolisme 'alcoholism'
ativ 'active' → ativisme 'activism'
deo 'god' → deisme 'theism'

-iste

The suffix -iste means a person who tends to behave or think in a certain way or an adherent of an ideology or a religion.

alkol 'alcohol' → alkoliste 'alcoholic, alcoholist'
ativ 'active', → ativiste 'activist'
deo 'god' → deiste 'theist, one who believes in existence of a god or gods'

-it ~ -lit

The suffix -(l)it expresses 'small size'.

pak 'pack' → pakit 'packet'
kas 'case' → kasit 'cassette'
sigar 'cigar' → sigarit 'cigarette'

-ita ~ -ta

The suffix -(i)ta creates abstract nouns that represent a quality or a state.

nov 'new, novel' → novita 'newness, novelty'
un 'one' unita 'oneness, unity'

-ium ~ -um

The suffix -(i)um means 'chemical element'.

kali 'base, alkali' → kalium 'kalium'
Kuri → kurium 'curium, the chemical element named after Marie Curie'
Einstein → einsteinium 'einsteinium, the chemical element named after Albert Einstein'

-ive ~ -tive

The suffix -(t)iv means someone who tends to do what the base word says. ate 'act, perform' → ativ 'active, inclined to act'
exploz 'explode' → exploziv 'explosive'
dika 'point at, indicate' → dikativ 'indicative'

-iza ~ -tiza

The suffix -(t)iza means 'to furnish or equip with something'.

aur 'gold' → auriza 'to gild, to coat with gold'
makin 'machine' → makiniza 'to mechanize, to equip with machinery'

-krat ~ okrat

The suffix (o)krat means 'to rule, govern'.

demo 'people, public' → demokratia 'democracy, rule by the people'
tekne 'technology' → teknokratia 'technocracy, rule by the technology'
media 'the (mass) media' → mediakratia 'mediacracy, rule by the media'

-los

The suffix -los means 'lacking'.

helpe 'help' → helpelos 'helpless'
nao 'brain' → naolos 'brainless'

-metre ~ ometre

The suffix (o)metre means 'measurement'.

terme 'temperature' → termometrer 'temperature measurer, thermometer'
sim- 'same' → simmetria 'equal measurements, symmetry'

-nomia ~ onomia

The suffix (o)nomia means 'arrangement, management'.

astre 'celestial body' → astronomia 'astronomy'
agre 'farming' → agronomia agronomy

-on

The suffix -on indicates great size.

bol 'ball' → bolon balloon'

-or ~ -tor

The suffix -(t)or means an apparatus, device or machine for doing the work that is incidated by the base word.

trat 'drag, haul' → trator 'tractor'
fotograf 'to photograph' → fotografor 'photograph apparatus, camera'

-ul ~ -kul

The suffix -(k)ul indicates intensification or concentration, frequently but not necessarily into a smaller size.

kum 'mound, hill' → kumul 'small hill, hillock, heap, pile'
bande 'band, group of things tied together' → bandul 'bundle'
mira 'stare in awe' → mirakul 'wonder, miracle'
lit 'small' → litul 'little' kulte 'cultivate a way of life' → kultura 'culture'
mixe 'mix' → mixura 'mixture'

Affixes for chemistry

-al 'aldehyde':
metanal 'formaldehyde, methanal'

-an 'alkane group':
metil 'methyl' → metan 'methane'

-ate 'salt or ester':
sulfe 'sulfur' → sulfate 'sulfate'

-en 'alkene group':
meten 'methen'

-il 'alkyl group':
bute 'butter' → butil 'butyl'
metan 'methane' → metil 'methyl'

-in 'alkyne group':
metin 'methyne'

-ite 'salt or ester':
sulfe 'sulfur' → sulfite 'sulfite'

-ol 'alcoholic compound':
etan 'ethane' → etanol 'ethanol'

-on 'ketone group':
propan 'propane' → propanon 'propanone'

-os 'sugar':
frute 'fruit' → frutos 'fructose'
malte 'malt' → maltos 'maltose'